Anarchism

=Anarchism=


 * -Ideas, Ideals and Beliefs **
 * -Erin Eglinton **

Anarchism is sometimes a feared philosophy as it is often correlated with chaos and disorder. Throughout history it has been treated as a dangerous set of ideas. All anarchists have different views of how the philosophy should be carried out. According to //The Oxford Companion to Philosophy// //, // “there is no single defining position that all anarchists hold, and those considered anarchists at best share a certain family resemblance ” [1]; this deomnstrates how anarchists can differ and yet be based on the same groundwork. It is important to look back to the roots of anarchism and the ideals on which it was founded. Anarchism is often misunderstood, yet the concepts behind the movement are quite simple and easy to comprehend.

Anarchism is defined as the “political theory holding all forms of government  authority to be unnecessary and undesirable and advocating a society based on voluntary cooperation and free association of individuals and groups” [2]. Anarchy is Latin for //anarchia// meaning “lack of leader”, which is derived from the Greek word //anarchos// which literally means, “without government” [3]. This is a simple unifying belief that all anarchists uphold. Anarchism is a denial of authority and social order or the absence of government [4]. The idea of anarchism was introduced in the middle ages with close links to utopian ideals, but political anarchism really got its start with William Godwin in the 18th century [5]. William Godwin “was the first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of anarchism, even though he did not give that name to the ideas” [6].

Anarchism is formed on the idea that human beings are inherently good, and because of this they are better off without the corrupting institution of government. Anarchists believed that in the absence of government, humans would still have shared values which would prevent the chaos predicted by many. This idea of human nature can be more clearly defined by ways of thinking, feeling and/or acting that are shared by the population [7]. Anarchists maintain that if humans were given the freedom from oppressive institutions, their inherent good qualities would prevail. If these institutions were abolished, people would form their own free communities.

Many protested the Divine Right of Kings, which anarchists believed lacked moral legitimacy [8]. This idea applied to the monarchial rulers of the 17th and 18th centuries who claimed their right to rule was given through God. Anarchists argued that this declaration was immoral. Inherent good, governmental lack of moral legitimacy and government as an unnecessary and harmful institution are three of the main ideas which anarchists share.

There are many different factions of anarchism. Social Anarchism and individual anarchism are two conflicting viewpoints that share some of the same base ideas, but take different stances on property ownership and individual autonomy. Social anarchism is also known as anarcho-socialism or libertarian anarchism. Social anarchists depend on community self-reliance, direct participation in political decision-making, respect for nature, and nonviolent paths to peace and justice [9]. They also reject private property, seeing it as a source of social inequality. On the other hand individual anarchists believe emphasize personal autonomy and the rational nature of human beings and stress the importance of private property or possession [10]. Again, individual anarchists and social anarchists share many of the same ideals, but have some clear distinctions. The most important differences between these two divisions are their views on personal property and possession.

[1] “Anarchism.” //[|The Oxford Companion to Philosophy]//, [|Oxford University Press], 2007, p.31. [2] “A** narchism **.” __Encyclopaedia Britannica__. 2009. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Nov. 20,2009 <[]> [3] Henry George Liddell, & Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon. Clarendon Press. 1940. [4] "Anarchy." __Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary__. 2009.Merriam-Webster Online. 20November 2009 [] [5] “Anarchism.” Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th Edition, Academic Search Premier, 10/1/2009. [6] "Anarchism", //The Encyclopaedia Britannica//, 1910.[] [7] Noam Chomsky & Michel Foucault, [|The Chomsky-Foucault Debate: On Human Nature (Full Text)] (New Press, 2006) [8] Antliff, Allan//. [|Anarchist Modernism: Art, Politics, and the First American Avant]// //[|Garde]// //. University of Chicago Press.// 2001. p.4 [9] Suissa, Judith (2001) "Anarchism, Utopias and Philosophy of Education" //Journal of////Philosophy of Education// 35 (4), 627–646. doi:10.1111/1467-9752.00249 [10] [|Ostergaard, Geoffrey]. "Anarchism". A Dictionary of Marxist Thought. BlackwellPublishing, 1991. p. 21. ** Influential People **

Pierre-Joseph Proudhon was born January 15, 1809 and died January 19, 1865. The first person to call himself an anarchist, Proudhon was also a French politician, mutualist philosopher, and a socialist[1]. Also, he was an anarchist writer and organizer; many still consider him to be the most influential anarchist writers of his time. Proudhon favored workers’ associations, otherwise known as co-operatives, and believed that land and workplaces should be nationalized[2]. Co-operatives are associations of people who jointly own and democratically control an enterprise. The goal of co-operatives is to meet economic, social, and cultural needs of the community at large.

Proudhon also believed in peaceful resolution of conflict. During the time of social revolutions, Proudhon wrote about violence and riots in order to gain encouragement for the anarchists who believed in peaceful resolution[3 ]. He also believed in mutual ownership of production processes. He worked for the co-operatization of production process, so that the laborers would have control of the products they produce.

One of Proudhon’s greatest ventures was the goal of creating a mutual financial co-operation. This mutual financial co-operative would take control of economic relations from capitalist and would be owned and operated by workers[4 ]. This bank would circulate exchange notes instead of gold based money. The exchange notes would be loaned to people who were a part owner of the bank (anyone who was a member) for a low rate of interest. Unfortunately, this venture was never realized during his lifetime, though through his writings, he left a legacy for other anarchists to follow.

Kropotkin is another famous anarchist who lived from 1842 to 1921. Kropotkin was born the son of a prince, into a Russian aristocratic traditional family. While still relatively young, Kropotkin became the personal page to the Russian Emperor Czar Alexander II, and served him until the day Alexander II was assassinated in 1881[5 ]. Through his adolescence and young adulthood, Kropotkin renounced his aristocratic heritage and rejected material gain to become a geographer and revolutionist.

In 1899, Kropotkin wrote and published one of his most famous books, // Memoirs of a Revolutionist //, shortly after, he wrote another // Mutual Aid // in 1902[6]. // Mutual Aid // is believed to have been written in response to Social Darwinism; which claims that people in societies are naturally competitive and is true among all individuals. It is not surprising that many anarchists were expelled from country to country because of what they believed in at the time. During this period in history Marxism was fast becoming the general belief system all over Europe. Kropotkin himself was expelled [7]from Switzerland and France, among others. While living in England, Kropotkin joined socialist groups and was proud to call himself a non-Marxist revolutionary thinker.

Kropotkin believed in populism, materialism, communalism, anarchism, and scientism; all of these are among the major themes of the revolutionary socialists at the time. Kropotkin eventual combined all of these themes and created a new anarchism philosophy based mostly on mutual aid and Darwin’s theory of evolution. This philosophy essentially assumed that people will thrive and live best in small communities in which all people shared and were connected to one another. Another founder of anarchism was Michael Bakunin who was born into a Russian noble family in 1814. He, like Proudhon and Kropotkin, was a revolutionary and believe in peaceful resolution, and took part in the German revolution of 1848[8 ]. He was also a member of the League of Peace and Freedom, and joined the central committee at the Geneva Conference.

Not only was Bakunin a founder of anarchism itself, he was also a founder of two more subtypes of anarchism, communist-anarchism and anarcho-syndicalism[9 ]. Communist-anarchism supports eradication of state, private property, and capitalism. Anarcho-syndicalism supports the labor movement as well as the co-operation of production processes. Both of these branches of anarchism promote self-management and elimination of hierarchic order in production processes and social standing.

The rejection of state is also a staple of anarchism, due to the fact that the state implements class rule[10 ]. Bakunin claimed that the state “is the organized authority, domination and power of the possessing classes over the masses”[11]; meaning, that the state should not have authority over the majority of people. Proudhon rejected capitalism because workers sell themselves and their rights during the time they spent laboring for other people, and Bakunin agrees with this notion.

There are several beliefs and attitudes that these three anarchists share, freedom, opposition of war, and social connectedness. Proudhon, Kropotkin, and Bakunin all believe that people are only truly free when they are connected to one another, not isolated from each other. Bakunin eloquently claims that “man in isolation can have no awareness of his liberty…liberty is therefore a feature not of isolation but of interaction, not of exclusion but rather of connection”[12 ]. Co-operation was truly believed to be the foremost aspect of human life and evolution.

Anarchists also believe that freedom is only possible when equality exists in a society; equality of economics and of society[13 ]. This equality is referred to in Kropotkin’s // Mutual Aid //, Proudhon’s idea for a co-operative bank, and Bakunin’s communist-anarchism and anarcho-syndicalism. Peace is also a product of equality, according to anarchists. All three of these men were revolutionary socialists and lived during a time of rioting and revolt, therefore, peaceful resolution of conflict, to anarchists, is the best way to resolve dispute. __References__ Chambers, M., Hanawalt, B., Rabb, T. K., Woloch, I., Grew, R., & Tiersten, L. __The Western Experience__. Vol. 2, 9th ed. New York, NY: McGraw Hill Inc., 2007. Knowles, R. “Human lights’: The Mystical Religion of Mikhail Bakunin”. __The European Legacy__ 7.1 (2002): 7-24. Baldwin, R. N. "The Story of Kropotkin's Life," in Kropotkin's __Anarchism: A Collection of Revolutionary Writings__. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, Inc., 1970. “The Revolutionary Ideas of Bakunin” __Anarchism Web Site__. http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/anarchism/writers/anarcho/history/bakunin.html Wookcock, G. __Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, a Biography.__ London: Routledge & Paul, 1956.

[1] Wookcock, G. __Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, a Biography.__ London: Routledge & Paul, 1956. [2] Wookcock, G. __Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, a Biography.__ London: Routledge & Paul, 1956. [3] Wookcock, G. __Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, a Biography.__ London: Routledge & Paul, 1956. [4] Wookcock, G. __Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, a Biography.__ London: Routledge & Paul, 1956. [5] Baldwin, R. N. "The Story of Kropotkin's Life," in Kropotkin's __Anarchism: A Collection of Revolutionary Writings__. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, Inc., 1970. [6] Baldwin, R. N. "The Story of Kropotkin's Life," in Kropotkin's __Anarchism: A Collection of Revolutionary Writings__. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, Inc., 1970. [7] Baldwin, R. N. "The Story of Kropotkin's Life," in Kropotkin's __Anarchism: A Collection of Revolutionary Writings__. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, Inc., 1970. [8] Knowles, R. “Human lights’: The Mystical Religion of Mikhail Bakunin”. __The European Legacy__ 7.1 (2002): 7-24. [9] “The Revolutionary Ideas of Bakunin” __Anarchism Web Site__. http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/anarchism/writers/anarcho/history/bakunin.html [10] Knowles, R. “Human lights’: The Mystical Religion of Mikhail Bakunin”. __The European Legacy__ 7.1 (2002): 7-24. [11] “The Revolutionary Ideas of Bakunin” __Anarchism Web Site__. http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/anarchism/writers/anarcho/history/bakunin.html [12] “The Revolutionary Ideas of Bakunin” __Anarchism Web Site__. http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/anarchism/writers/anarcho/history/bakunin.html [13] Chambers, M., Hanawalt, B., Rabb, T. K., Woloch, I., Grew, R., & Tiersten, L. __The Western Experience__. Vol. 2, 9th ed. New York, NY: McGraw Hill Inc., 2007.

=Rise of Anarchism= It is important to know what was happening in the time of the rise of Anarchism in the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century. Anarchism was a widespread movement across Europe at the time. In particular, in France, Anarchists achieved brief success that culminated with the Paris Commune in 1871. Socialist rumblings were present in France since the beginning before the turn of the nineteenth century. To begin, from the time of the Revolution in 1789 and for the next 150 years France saw continual political instability. France would have gone through two Empires, Restoration and at the end of the nineteenth century would mark the beginning of the Third Republic. Naturally, a reaction to political instability would be the insecurity and skepticism in government especially among the lower social classes. Socialism and anarchism appealed to ‘the poor who felt crushed by industrialization: immigrants to the United States, peasants in southern Spain, artisan and some industrial workers in Italy and France,” also “it appealed to artists and writers who shared anarchists’ contempt for bourgeois values.” [1] 1789 also marked the adoption of the //Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen//. The document set into motion liberal thinking precursors to more radical leftist movements of Socialism and anarchism. The concept of natural rights would mean “the new regime would be based on the principle of reason rather than history or tradition.” [2] 1796 saw the manifestation of anarchist sentiments in the form of the “Conspiracy of Equals”. Francois Babeuf, also known as Gracchus, and his followers sought to overthrow the First Republic. Their plot was unsuccessful and Babeuf would consequently be executed. Pierre Joseph Proudhon, the first self proclaimed anarchist, published his major work entitled //What is Property?// in 1840. In his work he made the bold declaration in response to his title that, “property is theft”. He also writes, “Liberty is equality, because liberty exists only in society; and in the absence of equality there is no society. Liberty is anarchy, because it does not admit the government of the will, but only the authority of the law; that is, of necessity.” [3] Proudhon saw individual independence and liberty as an organizing force and would lead to natural sovereignty. Later developments in the realm of socialism and anarchism would include the founding of The International Working Men’s Association, also referred to as First International in 1864. An international socialist organization, First International consisted of varying degrees of leftist thinkers including communists, Marxists, and anarchists. Ultimately, these distinctions would lead to the break up First International in 1872. In 1870 Napoleon III made the very unpopular decision to go to war against the Prussians. France suffered an embarrassing defeat as the Germans proceeded to besiege Paris. Paris needed control and in 1871 Paris was declared a self-governing commune. Alas, the Commune was short lived and had little time to experiment as the Third republic would come to form. In its brief life the Paris commune gave the thought of a worker’s revolution real life. Shortly after the Paris Commune, First International would split. In 1872 the debate between Marxism and anarchism would cause the Anarchist Jura federation to be expelled at First Internationals Hague Congress. Following the split Anarchism took on the form of the concept coined by Paul Brousse, “propaganda of the deed”. The concept would imply that any revolt against injustice was positive and that violent agitation would spur a revolution. This would some up Anarchism in France up to the onset of the First World War from its ferment after the Revolution in 1789 to the short lived Paris Commune. Elsewhere in Europe, anarchism showed signs of life such as the Nihilist Movement in Russia and the 1873 Uprising in Spain. However, in Spain the Workers uprising would be quickly put down causing Friedrich Engels to remark, “the Spanish Bakunists have given us an unsurpassed example of how not to make a revolution.”

[1] Chambers, M., Hanawalt, B., Rabb, T. K., Woloch, I., Grew, R., & Tiersten, L. __The Western Experience__. Vol. 2, 9th ed. New York, NY: McGraw Hill Inc., 2007. 755 [2] Ibid. 593 [3] Pierre Joseph Proudohn. //What Is Property? An Inquiry into the Principle of Right and of Government**.**// Trans. Benj. R. Tucker (New York: Dover, 1970) 281

** Causes and Consequences of the Anarchist Movement ** By Brandon Bednarek While there is no one direct cause that spawned the Anarchist movement, there were several influences that impacted its creation. One such influence was the continuation of Enlightenment ideals. Many of the ideas from the period of thinking transferred into the 19th century, where a heavy focus on the importance of individuals and spirit were still very much present. Another important influence was the French Revolution. Even though the French Revolution occurred almost a hundred years prior to the height of the Anarchist movement, its presence was still being felt. One of the main causes that both the French Revolution and Anarchist movement shared was the problem of social inequality. During the 18th Century, France was still under a feudalistic society, where the advantaged and rich few held special privileges. Some of those privileges included being exempt from paying taxes, enjoyment of many freedoms and inclusion within politics. Underneath these privileged few were the middle class and peasants who worked long hours doing strenuous labors for little pay and felt the heavy burden of taxation from the state. The parallel to French Revolution social inequality during the height of the Anarchism was the industrialization of many European countries, whose ethics and labor treatment were morally challengeable. The industrialization of Europe spread quickly among countries and affected almost all aspects of life. This change impacted the lives of the poor, working class, artisans, peasants and families and worked to repress them by their governments. As industry grew, the power and role of government grew as well. Through economic expansion of rail lines, factories and housing, there became a large increase in the taxation of country’s citizens. This economic rise also brought about an increase in work life – a change many saw from farming to factories, where conditions were highly unethical by today’s standards. In these factories, workers worked a 12-hour day, typically from 6am to 6pm with little to no breaks. The inefficiency of factories was also lacking heat and ability for airflow, leaving workers subjected to scorching summers and bitter cold winters. To ensure workers were doing their jobs, management would police the factory floors and punishing workers who were off task or being lazy by lashing them with whips or forcing heavy fines upon them. Despite employee’s hard work, there was limited to no advancement opportunities. Often workers would be stuck working the same job for the same pay during the length of their employment – which depended on several factors, time of year and factory overhead. As a result of social inequalities during the mid-to-late nineteenth century, many anarchists were inspired to stand up and fight against the obvious injustices occurring, much like the outcome of social inequality in the French Revolution. Depending on the faction of Anarchists, different approaches to social inequality were taken. Individualistic and pacifistic approaches were taken by some factions, whereas the most popular and radical approach was violence - as promoted through the Propaganda of the Deed. This “deed”, which would later inspire the idea of terrorism, promoted acts of violence, especially towards political figures, intended to cause chaos and revolution. Through the Propaganda of the Deed, assassinations of many European leaders were carried out. Among the victims were Czar Alexander II, Marie-Francois Sadi Carnot, the Empress of Austria, and the King of Italy. All of these assassinations took place at political functions or gatherings where radical Anarchists could perform acts of violence publically to crowds of hundreds. The consequences from the Anarchist movement were seen in terms of both negative and positive outcomes. While anarchist inspired songs, speeches, demonstrations and strikes proved to be effective tools in providing powerful awareness of much-needed changes in government; they were greatly overshadowed by the brutal tactics and acts of violence. Radical Anarchists strongly believed that their violence and assassinations would create and show vulnerability in government systems and inspire others towards self-sacrifice, but the radicals were unfortunately met with the opposite effect. These acts made the public see not just radicals, but all Anarchists as mindless destroyers. Their reign of violence was deemed unjustifiable by the public they were intending to help and as a result added a major roadblock to their cause. The consequences and negative effects of this movement have not faded with time. In fact, their consequences can be seen in present day, where its successor, terrorism, has been recreated to serve as a weapon for insurgent groups, radicals, and other groups looking to target governments, countries and other sources of power.