Modernism

=Modernism=

The modern art movement we focused on for our individual disciplines was influential in Europe around the 1870's to the beginning of World War I in 1914. Art forms of this time were influenced by the scientific and technological advances of the second half of the 19th century. With the inventions of photography and motion picture, some art forms shifted away from the more conventional styles. Advancements in technology changed the way art was produced and seen, as well as how it was reproduced and distributed. Also, new scientific theories shifted social ideologies away from religion and increased knowledge of the known world and our place in it. Also, modern art was a way for generations to rebel against social norms of the time.

Another influence that effected the modernization of the arts was the changing landscape of the social classes. During the late 19th century, the demography of Europe was becoming more urbanized as a higher number of workers were living in cities. This was due to the industrialization of Europe where the majority of workers were focused in factories at low wage positions. Because of the hardships of the working class at the hands of the bourgeoisie, there became an increase in the social divide that helped carve more distinct social classes.

Because of these developments a heightened awareness of social classes was formed. The working class at this time was tired of the subordinate rule of the bourgeoisie and was looking for changes in social structure. Out of this came the rise on popularity of the socialist movement which had a broad impact on different art forms of the time.

Modernism in Literature
By: Alex Kussler 

Background
The urban life was expanding and growing quickly in the late 1800’s and early 1900’s as a result of industrialization. More people were living in cities than ever before, and there were many consequences. The arts, as a whole, were quickly modernizing during this time and literature was certainly one of these disciplines. With more people living in cities and living an impoverished lifestyle dominated by capitalism and a rising bourgeoisie, the landscape of literature was bound to change. The following is an important quote that I believe helps to summarize the modernist movement in literature in one sentence: "In modernist literature, [|plot is] [|secondary] to [|philosophical introspection], and the prose can be winding and hard to follow." --Sholem Stein [1]

Realist Literature


There was an overwhelming movement during this time to break free from the restrictions of realism in literature, but realism did not disappear completely. Realist authors wanted to depict everyday and banal activities and experiences and t he realist novel of the time was limiting. With many people struggling to get by on low wages and suffering from the hardships of factory work and worker exploitations, there was a calling in literature to represent this middle class through writing. Writers were beginning to demand social change in their works and wrote for the middle class. Literature was now delving into a new world of introspection, unfamiliarity, and a rejection of religious based ideas. In some general sense, we can describe this new development as modernism in literature. =Modernism in Literature (novels, short stories) - An overview = A modernistic literature piece can take place during any time and at any place, it does not necessarily have to follow a single narrator or have to follow in a chronological order. “Time, in Modernist literature, may take the reader through a day in the life of a narrator.” [2] There is an emphasis on juxtaposition and the reader can delve into a more creative world where anything is possible due to the possibilities of the subconscious mind. Literature that was popular before modernism took hold was very religious in its context and nature, while modernism symbolized a time where being a skeptic and pessimistic regarding religion in literature was possible and even accepted. In addition, pessimism in realistic literature in general was another prominent theme and writers were characterized as being too "real" and graphic in telling it like it was, which was a common criticism and generalization.

 Charles Darwin and his theories of evolution and natural selection were also seeping in the social and artistic landscape and had an affect on literature. Darwin’s theory symbolized an ideal that it was acceptable to question the existence of man, God, and to begin to ponder the issue of why man exists. Darwin gave many the confidence to explore ideas of man that were not bound by the restrictions of God and it opened the doors for more inquisitive writing. There were many writers who were influenced by the writings and ideologies of Charles Darwin concerning evolution and natural selection. They bought into the idea proposed by Darwin that one's character is comprised of genetics and the environment in which they were living in and its social impacts.

One of these writers was a man by the name of Emile Zola. Zola is believed to have coined the term, “naturalism,” and embodies its' ideals in his writing. Naturalism is defined as a direct developmental offshoot of realism and was a late 19th century literary movement. The goal of naturalism was to represent every-day reality in literatur e in an attempt to appeal to the masses in an un-romantic == ized, scientific fashion. This is an example of literature evolving away from Romantic ideals of the early 19th century. “Naturali  sm claimed that the artist, like a scientist, should present life in objective detail after careful research.” [3] This was a direct backlash against romanticism and was fueled by the development of realism. Zola wanted to give the "masses" modernistic ideals and realistic qualities in his fiction. He was renowned for his development of characters and plots with the premise of the scientific method in mind. Here we see the influence of Charles Darwin. Zola published a set of novels entitled, //Les Rougon-Maquart//. This was a group of about 20 novels that Zola had penned.The main themes of //Les Rougon-Maquart// were based on struggles of the working middle class while focusing on drinking, violence, poor living conditions, and the struggle of the working middle class. This was an exemplary piece of literature chronicling the increasing amount of class division during modern times. Interestingly enough, t  his was also a time where Karl Marx began to call the established capitalistic system into question. Marx introduced ideals of socialism in his Communist Manifesto which was released in 1848 [4]. The middle class saw his call to socialism and attack on capitalism as their rallying cry; a way for the working class to be represented. Finally, someone was looking out for them and their rights and struggles. This helped to pave the way for writers and poets to begin to cater their literature to this group of people. Marx and Darwin are two iconic figures from this time period for the way that they changed society and the literature of the time adapted to their ideals and embodied the themes of modernism. ==

Poetry
Modernistic literature focused on giving the reader a great deal of imagery to place the reader directly in the period of time and in the exact situations. This was helpful in giving a greater visual impact on the reader and allowing them to relate more to the written work through their own imaginations. Poetry pre-1880 was focused on conformity and rigidity when it came to the style of the poems. There was little room for stylistic freedoms and poetic liberty. Poets of the time would focus on the formality of their poems and less on the creativity and freedom of style. Poetry was being written to appeal to the emerging middle class and was open to their interpretation. There are three distinct factors that define modernistic poetry. “Self” was often questioned and free verse was utilized heavily. “Self” was being questioned in a new important way where the poetry actually referred to social problems of society instead of on something that was more irrelevant and imaginary as was prominent in Romanticism. One influential poet in England during this time that reflected these new ideals of poetry was a man by the name of D. H. Lawrence, who lived from 1885 through 1930. Lawrence is responsible for more than 850 poems and he often composed his poems in free verse, which was becoming the most prominent medium for poetry during this time. Perhaps Lawrence’s greatest contribution to the advancement of the modernism movement in literature was his focus on the industrialization of England and its debilitation of the working class at the time. He enjoyed writing about the struggles of the marginalized middle class at the hands of industrialization and capitalism. Lawrence’s poems first became public in 1904.

Conclusion
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10.8pt; line-height: 115%;"> Literature was becoming a very important form of entertainment during this time. There were very few other mediums in which people found ways to entertain themselves. There was theatre, which is still based on written word. Writers and poets were knowledgeable of this and the need to appeal to the growing middle class was important to them and their well-being. Perhaps there simply was more to life than going through it in a mundane fashion, focusing only on work. People needed distractions from the grind of everyday life and ways to keep their minds in a constant, intellectual state of exercise. There was obviously no television or radio and people took great satisfaction in reading a piece that seemed to be expressing their social concerns--it was something to relate to. This was a therapeutic process in a way. Literature was an ever evolving discipline during this period of modernism and it has continued to evolve even today under the very same goal of creating works and pieces that appeal to the masses and changing social landscape.

Selected Primary Source:
Zola, Emile. Money. Reprint, Edited by Andrew Moore. New York, Mondial, 2007.

= =

Modernism in Architecture and Sculpture
By: Brent Thill

Art Nouveau literally means new art in France where it originated. This movement was present from around 1880 to 1914. Art Nouveau was very successful in decorative arts, architecture, and sculpture. The style is described as using natural shapes and patterns to mix in all aspects of art and design. This movement walked under the flag of an art that would break all connections to classical times, and bring down the barriers between the fine arts and applied arts. (1) In this new approach, artists work on everything from architecture to furniture design to try and incorporate art into everyday life. It was a way of thinking about modern society and new production methods. Art historians argue that this movement was a reaction to the Industrial revolution, rapid urban growth, and technological advances. It emphasized a high level of craftsmanship and detail, which went against mass production of goods. Some artists embraced technology and welcomed the new possibilities it brought, such as cast iron. Art Nouveau emphasized handcrafting as opposed to machine manufacturing, the use of new materials. (2) As a result, these items were exclusively for the wealthy.
 * Art Nouveau **

Curving lines generally characterize Art Nouveau, but right angled forms are also used. Although these works of art can be beautiful, they are not always the most functional. Nature was the single most important source for Art Nouveau artists and designers. (3) After the publication of Charles Darwin’s “Origin of Species”, and “The Descent of Man”, artists and designers began to explore the idea that humankind was no longer above nature, but inextricably part of it. (4) Art Nouveau designers also believed that all the arts should work in harmony to a create a total work of art, such as buildings, furniture, textiles, clothes, and jewelry all conform to the principles of Art Nouveau. (5) During the Art Nouveau time period, urban life begins to establish itself. The movement incorporates itself visually in architecture and interior decorating in public. Old customs, habits, and artistic styles sat alongside new, combing a wide range of contradictory images and ideas. (6) Many artists, designers, and architects were excited by new technologies and lifestyles, while others retreated into the past, embracing the spirit world, fantasy, and myth. (7) At its height, one hundred years ago, Art nouveau was a concerted attempt to create an international style based on decoration. (8) Styles of Art Nouveau ** Art Nouveau was known in France as style Guimard, after French designer Hector Guimard; in Italy as the stile Floreale; stile Liberty, after British Art Nouveau designer Arthur Lasenby Liberty; in Spain as Modernisme; and in Germany as Jugendstil.

The Guimard style of Art Nouveau was named after French architect and interior designer, Hector Guimard. Hector Guimard’s first project was to design the interior of the “Au Grande Neptune” restaurant in Paris. (9) Hector produced works from 1891 to the 1920’s. He also had very important works such as Paris dwelling Castel Beranger, 60 rue La Fontaine, and the entrance to Paris Metro. The technological progress helped him design many entrances to metros featuring wrought iron, bronze, and glass. Advocating the unity of architecture and spatial art more coherently and cogently than anyone else, Guimard conceived his buildings as total works or art. (10) Guimard was sure to involve everyday things, and let no detail go unnoticed.
 * Guimard **

Floreale style is a style of exuberant decorative architecture used particularly for the dwellings of the prosperous Italian bourgeoisie, and essentially a branch of Art Nouveau. (11) Floreale was around Italy from 1898 to 1914. It featured distorted mouldings, ribbons like tapeworms, and luxuriant plant-forms. (12)
 * Style Floreale **

** Jugendstil ** <span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; msobidifontfamily: Arial;">Literally, the German version of Art Nouveau, it was named after the journal Die Jugend which publicized the style. (13) German versions of Art Nouvaeu tends to be more flat and angular. It was around from 1896 to 1914.

<span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; msobidifontfamily: Arial;">Auguste Rodin was middle class born in 1840. When he was 18 he started working with decorative art to help support his family and had aspirations of being a sculptor. Eventually, his works would create much controversy. His first major sculpture was of a nude man called the Vanquished. When he first presented The Vanquished in Brussels, critics were suspicious of the statue’s incredible realism and accused Rodin of making a cast from the live model, a technique that a true sculpture would never use. (14)
 * <span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; msobidifontfamily: Arial;">Auguste Rodin **

Rodin returned to Paris where the statue was displayed, but under criticisms. While there he create another larger statue of Saint John the Baptist that was again criticized and was exhibited with The Bronze Age, formerly known as The Vanquished. His figure did not depend on Saint John’s more common attributes- a hair shirt, leather belt, or a cross and scroll- but presented an unidealized nude figure which his contemporizes found improper, ugly, and shocking. (15)

Despite the criticism and controversy of the early part of his career, Rodin was commissioned by the French Ministry of Fine Arts to design his first large scale public project in 1880. (16) He was to design an entrance for a new museum in Paris. His source of inspiration for the doorway was the book The Divine Comedy (catholic based book on Purgatory) which he planned on calling, “The Gates of Hell.” The building of the museum continued to be put off. Several of the most famous independent sculptures, such as The Thinker, The Kiss, and The Three Shades, were derived from smaller reliefs contained within The Gates of Hell. (17) The museum was never built and on November 17, 1917, Rodin died and The Thinker was placed at the base of his tomb.

Pablo Picasso who was born in Spain in 1881, was most well known for his paintings, but created over 1,228 sculptures and 2,880 ceramics. Picasso was one of the first to incorporated everyday life and objects into his sculptures. Introduction of non art materials radically transformed sculpture.
 * Pablo Picasso **

Living in Paris in the early 1900’s, Picasso met a Family called the Stien’s. At the Stien’s he met other artists living and working in the city generally referred to as the school of Paris. (18) Painted in 1906, Gertrude Stein records Picasso’s early stylistic experiment with primitivism influenced by a new fascination with pre Roman Iberian sculpture and African Oceanic art. (19) Concentrating on intuition rather than strict observation, and unsatisfied with the features of Gertrude Stien’s face, Picasso reworked her image into a masklike manifestation stimulated by primitivism. (20) Here the figure arrangement recalls Cezanne’s compositions of bathers while stylistically it is influenced by primitivism, evident by the angular planes and well defined contours that create an overall sculptural solidity in the figures. (21)

The Eiffel Tower is one of the world’s largest and most recognized architectural structures. The Eiffel Tower, an immense structure of exposed latticework supports made of puddle iron, was erected for the Paris Exposition of 1889. (22) It was built to be the entrance for the 1889 World’s fair. Its name came from its designer and engineer Gustave Eiffel. It is a representation of how sculpture and architecture were mixing together at the time. The controversial tower drew some strong reactions and a petition by nature lover, architects, painters, and writers. Its open steel frame was a major shift in classical architecture.
 * Effiel Tower **

Notes: <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; msobidifontfamily: Calibri; msobidithemefont: minor-latin; msofareastfontfamily: Calibri; msofareastthemefont: minor-latin; msolist: Ignore;"> 1)   Art Nouveau, [|WWW.huntfor.com/arthistory/c19th/artnouveau.htm] [accessed 11- 22- 09]  <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; msobidifontfamily: Calibri; msobidithemefont: minor-latin; msofareastfontfamily: Calibri; msofareastthemefont: minor-latin; msolist: Ignore;"> 2)   Art Nouveau <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; msoansilanguage: FR; msobidifontfamily: Calibri; msobidithemefont: minor-latin; msofareastfontfamily: Calibri; msofareastthemefont: minor-latin; msolist: Ignore;"> 3)   Art Nouveau: Nature, [|WWW.NGA.gov/feature/Nouveau/exhibit_nature.shtml] [accessed 11 - 22- 09]  <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; msoansilanguage: FR; msobidifontfamily: Calibri; msobidithemefont: minor-latin; msofareastfontfamily: Calibri; msofareastthemefont: minor-latin; msolist: Ignore;"> 4)   <span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; msoansilanguage: FR;">Art Nouveau: Nature <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; msobidifontfamily: Calibri; msobidithemefont: minor-latin; msofareastfontfamily: Calibri; msofareastthemefont: minor-latin; msolist: Ignore;"> 5)   Art Nouveau : New Style for a New Age, [|WWW.NGA.gov/feature/Nouveau/exhibit_nature.shtml] [accessed 11 - 22- 09]  <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; msobidifontfamily: Calibri; msobidithemefont: minor-latin; msofareastfontfamily: Calibri; msofareastthemefont: minor-latin; msolist: Ignore;"> 6)   Art Nouveau : New Style for a New Age <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; msobidifontfamily: Calibri; msobidithemefont: minor-latin; msofareastfontfamily: Calibri; msofareastthemefont: minor-latin; msolist: Ignore;"> 7)  Art Nouveau : New Style for a New Age <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; msobidifontfamily: Calibri; msobidithemefont: minor-latin; msofareastfontfamily: Calibri; msofareastthemefont: minor-latin; msolist: Ignore;"> 8)   Art Nouveau : New Style for a New Age <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; msobidifontfamily: Calibri; msobidithemefont: minor-latin; msofareastfontfamily: Calibri; msofareastthemefont: minor-latin; msolist: Ignore;"> 9)   Hector Guimard, [|WWW.Hector-Guimard.com] [accessed 11 - 22- 09]  <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; msobidifontfamily: Calibri; msobidithemefont: minor-latin; msofareastfontfamily: Calibri; msofareastthemefont: minor-latin; msolist: Ignore;"> 10)   Hector Guimard <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; msobidifontfamily: Calibri; msobidithemefont: minor-latin; msofareastfontfamily: Calibri; msofareastthemefont: minor-latin; msolist: Ignore;"> 11)   Floreale, A Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape, Oxford University Press. 2000. [|WWW.encyclopedia.com/doc/101-Floreale.html] [accessed 11 - 22 – 09]  <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; msobidifontfamily: Calibri; msobidithemefont: minor-latin; msofareastfontfamily: Calibri; msofareastthemefont: minor-latin; msolist: Ignore;"> 12)   Floreale <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; msobidifontfamily: Calibri; msobidithemefont: minor-latin; msofareastfontfamily: Calibri; msofareastthemefont: minor-latin; msolist: Ignore;"> 13)   Jugendstil, A Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape, Oxford University Press. 2000. [|WWW.encyclopedia.com/doc/101-Floreale.html] [accessed 11 - 22 – 09]  <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; msobidifontfamily: Calibri; msobidithemefont: minor-latin; msofareastfontfamily: Calibri; msofareastthemefont: minor-latin; msolist: Ignore;"> 14)    Auguste Rodin, Modern Art History – Sculptures and Biography, [|WWW.arthistoryarchive.com/arthistory/sculpture/Auguste-Rodin.html] [Accessed 11-22 -09] <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; msobidifontfamily: Calibri; msobidithemefont: minor-latin; msofareastfontfamily: Calibri; msofareastthemefont: minor-latin; msolist: Ignore;"> 15)  Auguste Rodin <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; msobidifontfamily: Calibri; msobidithemefont: minor-latin; msofareastfontfamily: Calibri; msofareastthemefont: minor-latin; msolist: Ignore;"> 16)   Auguste Rodin <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; msobidifontfamily: Calibri; msobidithemefont: minor-latin; msofareastfontfamily: Calibri; msofareastthemefont: minor-latin; msolist: Ignore;"> 17)  Auguste Rodin <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; msobidifontfamily: Calibri; msobidithemefont: minor-latin; msofareastfontfamily: Calibri; msofareastthemefont: minor-latin; msolist: Ignore;"> 18)    Pablo Picasso, Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, [|WWW.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/pica/hd_pica.html] [accessed 11 - 22 – 09] <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; msobidifontfamily: Calibri; msobidithemefont: minor-latin; msofareastfontfamily: Calibri; msofareastthemefont: minor-latin; msolist: Ignore;"> 19)  Pablo Picasso <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; msobidifontfamily: Calibri; msobidithemefont: minor-latin; msofareastfontfamily: Calibri; msofareastthemefont: minor-latin; msolist: Ignore;"> 20)   Pablo Picasso <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; msobidifontfamily: Calibri; msobidithemefont: minor-latin; msofareastfontfamily: Calibri; msofareastthemefont: minor-latin; msolist: Ignore;"> 21)  Pablo Picasso <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; msobidifontfamily: Calibri; msobidithemefont: minor-latin; msofareastfontfamily: Calibri; msofareastthemefont: minor-latin; msolist: Ignore;"> 22)    The Eiffel Tower Paris, [|www.discoverfrance.net/France/Paris/Monuments-Paris/Eiffel.shtml] [accessed 11 - 22 – 09]

Modernism in the Theater
By: Bret Rademacher

In the 19th century, there was a "drastic shift in the way people regarded themselves and the world around them." (1) For theater to increase its popularity in this time it had to reform its content and style to reflect the changing world and ideals of this newly "enlightened" public. These reforms lead to many movements that would eventually lead to a modern theater. Some of these movements include romanticism, melodrama, realism, naturalism and anti-realism.

With the increasing popularity of industrialization and capitalism, factory work became prominent in the 19th century. The emphasis of business on factory work created a need for factory workers to live closer to their places of employment creating a trend of urbanization throughout Europe. It was during this first half of the century that theaters were "deserted by the middle and upper classes and were forced to play to a predominantly uneducated, lower-class audience" who were seeking escape from their "dehumanizing living and working conditions." (2)

These dehumanizing living and working conditions created a demand for social and economic reform in the working class. European governments at the time viewed reform as a threat believing it was one of the primary causes of the French Revolution. Because of this, governments did little to better the working class's living conditions sparking numerous workers rebellions between 1830 and 1850. The proposal for applying Scientific method to social problems was most appealing to governments. "Out of this faith in science there emerged in the 1850's a movement called Realism." (3)

Romantic Theater and Melodrama
The Romantic Movement in theater became popular in Europe in the first half of the 19th century. The Romantic Movement was so influential because romantics were "more interested in creating mood and atmosphere than in developing believable plots or depth of character." (4) Another reason romantics were so influential to later forms of drama was because romantics considered all subject matter to be appropriate for the stage. Melodrama (sometimes referred to as Music-drama) was popularized in France at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century. The name melodrama comes from the background music that accompanied the plays in an attempt to evoke strong emotional responses from the audience. The "aim of melodrama is pure escapism" (5) and the melodramatic play's of this time closely followed a well-made-play structure. Well-made-plays showed excellent craftsmanship and most importantly, the plot is carefully resolved so there are no loose ends.

Realist Theater and Naturalistic Theater
Early realistic theater was very similar to romantic theater and melodrama. Due to its upheld traditional morals, early realistic theater did not offend many theatergoers. These early plays borrowed heavily from melodrama's techniques of "well-made" plays and focused on entertaining the audience. In this way, the earliest works of realistic theater were similar to romantic theater and melodrama in their focus on escapism. The audience was dominantly lower and working class who came to the theater in hopes to escape from their living and working conditions.

In the later part of the 19th century, more serious plays were introduced under circumstances attracting middle and upper-class audiences. "As the century progressed, the mass audience turned towards music halls allowing the middle classes to again patronize the theater." (6) The theater saw a shift from romantic dramas to more serious and socially challenging dramas. Realism became popular in reaction to romanticism's tendency to lose touch with reality. Realism also grew out of the criticisms of the deceptive nature of the well made play and the extreme exaggerations of melodrama. Because of differences in both the audience and the plot structure, more serious subject matter was staged pushing aside morality and presenting more offensive issues.

== The Norwegian playwright Henrik Ibsen is said to be the "founder of realism." While starting out as a romantic playwright, Ibsen soon caught on to the realistic movement and adapted its ideals to the stage. He is best known for his exploration between the interactions of people with society and explored social problems ranging from unhappy marriages to the sexual double standard. As a realist, Ibsen also often commented on woman's status in society. Besides Ibsen, other prominent playwrights of the time include Leo Tolstoy (//The Power of Darkness//), Aleskey Pisemsky (//A Bitter Fate//), and August Strindburg (//Miss Julie//).

Ibsen as well as other realist playwrights at the time used modern scientific observations of humanity to present an objective "slice of life" on the stage. With realistic content, theaters were looking for improved ways to present these on the stage. This need brought about a new emphasis on realistic acting which in turn created new forms of training. One of these new systems for training performers to act realistically was introduced by Konstantin Stanislavsky in the late 19th century.

Closely related to Realism was the movement known as naturalism. Naturalism first appeared in France in the 1870's and focused mainly on mans struggle with society. Like realism, naturalists believed that dramatists should "seek out social ills and reveal them so they may be corrected." (7) Naturalism's tendency to criticize established social order created strong appeal for the socialist movement. With the rise of the socialist movement, governments throughout Europe were being forced to develop better, more representative forms of government. Because of this, naturalistic drama focused strongly on interest in the working classes and rights of the common man. Naturalists demanded reform of the theater and felt a play should merely be a "slice of life" on stage. It was in this movement that the theatrical distinction between art and life was obliterated.

Ibsen, an Example
One of Ibsen's more famous realistic plays creating a furor in the late 19th century was //Ghosts//. The subject matter of Ibsen's //Ghosts// must have been startling for most Victorian audiences. The action revolves around Mrs. Alving who, many years prior to the story of the play, wanted to leave her philandering husband and sought advice from her minister, Pastor Manders. Although Mrs. Alving was attracted to Pastor Manders, he convinced Mrs. Alving to stay with her husband.

As the play starts, Mrs. Alving's husband is dead and she and Manders are dedicating an orphanage in his memory. It is here that Mrs. Alving reveals that Mr. Alving never changed his ways and died from a venereal disease. She also reveals that her servant Regina is Alving's illegitimate daughter. The dramatic action is further complicated by the fact that Oswald, Mrs. Alving's son wants to marry his half-sister Regina. Before Mrs. Alving and Manders can inform Oswald of the truth about Regina, the orphanage burns down. The orphanage was not insured because Manders feared that insuring it would imply weak beliefs in God, and to avoid being blamed for the fire, Manders is tricked into fund the building of a home for sailors, though it is obvious to the audience that this home will actually be a brothel.

By the final act, Oswald admits to his mother that he is also dying from a venereal disease. Oswald begs his mother to promise to assist him in committing suicide when the disease destroys his mind. At the close of the play, Oswald deteriorates completely and goes blind calling for his mother to give him "the sun." It is here that the curtain falls, Ibsen never revealing if Mrs. Alving carries out the merciful killing or not.

//Ghosts// touched on many subjects which were considered very offensive in his day (as well as today). Ibsen questions the sexual double standard when Mrs. Alving asks Manders why only women must be virgins on their wedding night. "Ibsen also suggests that the women of his era have been forced to sublimate their sexuality; Mrs. Alving, for example, recognizes that she brought "no joy of life" into her marriage." (8) Ibsen, like many other realists, questions the institution of marriage (Oswald's story about Paris couples with kids who, due to financial issues never married) and he satirizes religion (Manders character.) The characters of //Ghosts// are not stereotypical and each character's social, economic and psychological motivations are revealed to the audience. Finally, Ibsen's ending is very common among realist writers of the time. He closely followed a well-made play structure until the very end when Ibsen chooses not to resolve the play neatly, but instead leaves the audience guessing whether or not Mrs. Alving assisted her son in committing suicide. Ibsen also revolves his plot around two secrets (the identity of Regina's father) and the origin of Oswald's disease that the audience is aware of but not all the characters.

Censorship
During the realist movement on stage, governments all over Europe were attempting to keep serious discussions of religion, sex, and politics off the stage. Because of this censorship, Realists had trouble getting their dramas to be stages. This censorship led to the establishment of many independent theaters around the continent. Because the theater was independent, it was exempt from the government censorship, and was able to stage and develop realistic dramas. One of the most famous independent theaters at the time was the Moscow Art Theater where Stanislavski taught and perfected his system of training.

Post Realism
Although realism and Naturalism were major contributing movements to the "modern" movement of theater, there were other movements that popped up throughout Europe in opposition to these movements. The leading anti-realistic movement was the symbolist movement. Symbolists were opposed to the naturalistic view of showing a "slice of life" onstage. Instead, symbolists believed that drama should present the mystery of the cosmos and being alive. They emphasized the infinite qualities of the human spirit and believed that the basic means of communication with the audience was through symbolic images.

Because of the void between realistic theater and anti-realistic theater, another movement in the early 20th century emerged, the eclectic movement. The eclectics made an attempt to "bridge the gap" between realist and anti-realistic theater. Eclectics believed that each play should have its own form and no play should be subject to a specific genera or type of play.

__**Selected Primary Source:**__ Ibsen, Henrik. Ghosts. 1911. Reprint, Edited by Glenn Mott. New York: Dover Publications, INC, 1997.

__**Notes:**__ 1) Wilson, Edwin; Goldfarb, Alvin. //Living Theater: A History//, 3rd ed. (Nashville: McGraw-Hill Humanities Social, 1999), page 358. 2) Woodfield, James. //English Theater in Transition: 1881-1914,// (London: Croom Helm, 1984), page 1. 3) Brockett, Oscar G. //Modern Theater: Realism and Naturalism to the Present//, (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, INC., 1982), page 2. 4) Wilson and Alvin, page 324. 5) Wilson and Alvin, page 327. 6) Woodfield, page 2. 7) Brockett, page 13. 8) Wilson and Alvin, page 366.

Modernism in Art
Modernism in the Arts represented through Paintings By: Amos Washington

Painting was an important art form in the Modernism movement. Starting in the late 19th century, painting was deeply involved in the Modernism movement. Throughout the late 19th and early 20th century different schools of painting developed that were important to the modern art movement. Three schools that were important to modern art are impressionism in the 19th century, fauvism at the turn of the 20th century, and cubism.

Impressionism Impressionism was an important style in the 1870s through the early 1900s. Impressionism has its roots in France. A group of painters who studied under Marc Gleyre are seen as the founder of this movement. They are Claude Monet, Pierre Auguste Renoir, Jean Frederic Bazille, and Alfred Sisley. [|[1]] [|[2]] The term ‘impressionism’ was first used in 1874 to describe an exhibit of their work and gets its name from Monet’s Painting, “Impression, Sunrise” ( See Below). These painters were breaking away from the popular romanticism ideas and traditions. Rather than using the painting as a way to express and portray emotion, impressionist painters focused their subject matter on observation through a scientific perspective. [3] There were two main influences of impressionist painters. The first was the realistic art movement. This movement was during the mid 19th century and the painters attempted to depict what they actually saw as accurately as possible. Impressionist shared this interest in depicting the ‘real’ world. Similarly they wanted to take the imagination and emotion out of the art. The second and most important influence was the scientific study of light and color. [|[4]] The late 19th century was a time of revolution in science and the arts were influenced by the information science brought. Impressionists rejected the idea of painting with the imagination and based their paintings on the growing knowledge in the sciences. The study of light and subsequently the fact that sight is based on light was a large influence of impressionism. [|[5]] Knowledge was growing in all the sciences and technology, transforming society around in, but these changes were not a center of concern for impressionists. Their lack of concern for these changes in society is echoed in an essay by John House; “During the later nineteenth century, the physical experience of France’s Mediterranean coast was transformed by the arrival of the railway and the rapid development of tourism. Yet the painters’ visions of this coast largely ignored these changes in favor of quite different concerns: the problems of translating the effects of the southern light into paint…” [|[6]] They want to portray the fact that light transforms the appearance of objects and how reflections alter color and form. This idea of an ever changing reality is important to impressionism. Impressionist painters try to capture what the eye sees at a glance, not their preconceived notions about the subject. [|[7]]

The impressionist movement is a synthesis of ideas past ideas and newer ideas that were emerging. The impressionists wanted to accurately portray sight, like the realistic movement, but had better knowledge on the topic of sight from the scientific movement. [|[8]] Impressionists took realistic movement and blended the advancements in science to it and created their own thought within the modern movement.

Fauvism Fauvism was the first important art movement of the 20th century. This style only flourished for about four years between 1903 and 1907 but it was very influential to later artists and movements. This movement, like impressionism, was largely centered in France. Henri Matisse is the most important artist of this movement, and other fauvist painters include Andre Derain, Raoul Dufy, and Georges Rouault. The word fauves literally means ‘wild beasts’ in French. An art critic used the word because of the unusual boldness of the style. [|[9]] While impressionism was influenced by the sciences to accurately portray their subject matter, fauvism was merely interested portraying color and feeling. Fauve painters wanted to capture comfort and pleasure in their paintings. They used extremely bright colors and painted with rapid brushstrokes to directly show the “vividness and excitement of nature.” [|[10]] This fascination with bright colors can be seen by the painters disregard for natural color. An example of this is Matisse’s //Landscape at Collioure (See Below)//, where he switches the natural brown color of the tree trunks for bright reds and blues. [|[11]]

Fauvism comes at the turn of the century, a time when the ‘classical’ traditions in painting and the modern art movements were two distinct worlds. Fauvism is an attempt to reconcile the differences between the two and combine them to create and smooth transition to the next step in social progress. These two side of thoughts represented different ends of the political spectrum. The ‘classical’ that is rooted in traditions passed down through time all the way from Greek and Roman antiquity. The modern is based on radical change and ideology that dramatically breaks from social traditions. [|[12]] Going on that, fauvism can be seen as a political critique about how society needs to blend the new ideas with old traditions to progress the structure of society, “Fauve pictures, bringing these two major artistic traditions together on the same pictorial surface, inevitably played national politics.” [|[13]] Cubism

Cubism is perhaps the most influential movement in modern art. It flourished as a movement from 1907 until around the time of the start of World War I. This movement was lead by Spanish artist Pablo Picasso and French artist Georges Braque. Cubist painters revolutionized painting by their approach to portraying form and space. [|[14]] Cubist painters were reacting against traditional ways of portraying reality. They disagreed with the traditional ideas that art was based in emotion and storytelling, but also went against other modern movements, such as impressionism, in the fact that unlike that movement cubism was concerned with emphasizing light and perspective. They strongly rejected these views; instead cubist paintings are an analysis of the subject matter in simple, geometric forms. [|[15]] ` Cubism grows directly out of the wave of discovery and knowledge that swept over Europe. People were searching to understand the world around them and how it functions. The growth of science and technology allowed people to deconstruct compounds and matter on earth in order to see its basic composition. This was the idea that cubism had its roots in. By using geometric form, painters can show how all objects break down into simpler forms and better understand its composition. There is a quote that expresses this perfectly; “It was a matter not simply of extending and refining existing knowledge, but of creating new dimensions of knowledge, thought, and experience. Existing social, academic, and technical structures were giving way to new specializations, new professions…The history of Cubism belongs intimately to this period, growing out of this extraordinarily dynamic situation…” [|[16]] Cubism passed through two important phases. The first is analytical cubism. It lasted mostly from 1910 to 1912. Analytical cubism was more a revision than a complete rejection. They were still concerned with the direct analysis of things. It wanted to specifically take something in life and reconstruct it in painting. These painters started with reality and attempted to reproduce it. [|[17]] The second phase is called synthetic cubism. Synthetic cubism, unlike analytical, was technically and conceptually a denial of European tradition. Cubist painters gained courage and continued on from analytical cubism to synthetic. While analytical cubism started with reality and attempted to reproduce it, synthetic began in term of art and the end result was supposed to be reality. Painting can never actually reproduce reality, and instead of trying to do that, synthetic cubists created their own reality by bringing together forms and elements creating a completely unique object. This is the phase of cubism where paper mache and collages become important. In this sense synthetic cubists saw their paintings as more real since it didn’t imitate and distort anything else. [|[18]] These three movements are only a few that represent modernism in the arts. There were other movements going on at the time, and move showed up as time went along. All three of these movements though represent modernism in the late 19th century, the transition to the 20th century, and its progression into the new future. These movements were responses to changes in world around them. Social structure as well as advancement in science and technology was all changing and the various modern artistic movements show how people of the time were responding to this.



Selected Primary Sources
Impressionism Water Lily Pond - Claude Monet, 1899. [] The Umbrellas - Renoir, 1883. [] Landscape on the Shore of Lez - Frederic Bazille, 1870. []

Fauves The Luxembourg Gardens - Henri Matisse, 1901-02. [] Posters at Trouville - Raoul Dufy, 1906. [] Pont de Charing Cross - Andre Derain, 1906. []

Cubists Factory at Horta de Ebro - Pablo Picasso, 1909. [] Violin and Candlestick - Georges Braque, 1910. [] - Notes: 1) " impressionism." __The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition__. 2008. //Encyclopedia.com.// 22 Nov. 2009 <http://www.encyclopedia.com>. 2) Edgerton Jr., Samuel Y.; Kay, Reed; Swinton, Elizabeth; Weller, Allen S. “Painting.” __World Book.__ Volume 15, P. U.S.A.: World Book Inc. 1989. p. 74-80 3) "impressionism" 4)Weller, Allen. “Impressionism.” __World Book__. Volume 10, I. 1989. p. 93-94 5) "impressionism" 6) House, John. “That Magical Light.” __Impressions of the Riviera__//.// Kenneth Wayne, ed. Portland: Bell Atlantic, 1998. p.10 7) "That Magical Light" p.10-25 8) "Painting" p.74-80 9) "Painting" p.74-80 10) "Painting p.74-80 11)"Painting" p.74-80 12) Herbert, James D. __Fauve Painting: The Making of Cultural Politics.__ New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992. p.8-14 13) Herbert. Fauve Painting p.9 14) "Painting" p.74-80 15) Boime, Albert. “Cubism.” __World Book__. Volume 4, Ci- Cz. p.1181 16) Wadley, Nicholas. __Cubism: Movements of Modern Art__. New York: Hamlyn Publishing, 1970. p.11-13 17) Wadley. Cubism p. 52 18) Wadley. Cubism. p. 82-89

Annotated Bibliography
Brian, Rober M., (2008). THe Pulse of Modernism: Experimental Physiology and Aesthetic Avant-Gardes Circa 1900. Studies in History and Philosphy of Scince Part A, VOlume 39 (issue 3), Page 393-417. This journal article was about the idea that modern art was developed through the integration of the ideas of science and art.

Einstein, Carl; Haxthuasen, Charles W., (2004). Notes on Cubism. //October,// Volume 107 (Winter 2004), Page 158-168. This journal article discusses the origins of cubism. It focuses on how cubism was skepticle about the identity of objects and how cubism was exploring with new ways to portray objects.

" impressionism." __The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition__. 2008. //Encyclopedia.com.// 22 Nov. 2009 <http://www.encyclopedia.com>. Website that discusses the focuses of impressionist painters. It also gives a brief background and what impessionism was a reaction to. Edgerton Jr., Samuel Y.; Kay, Reed; Swinton, Elizabeth; Weller, Allen S. “Painting.” __World Book.__ Volume 15, P. U.S.A.: World Book Inc. 1989.

Article in an encyclopedia reference book that gives the history of painting. It talks about the different periods of painting and the movements in them, discussing the styles, important people, and context to overall picture. Specifically looked at the sections of impressionism, fauvism, and cubism.

House, John. “That Magical Light.” __Impressions of the Riviera__//.// Kenneth Wayne, ed. Portland: Bell Atlantic, 1998. Is a collection of essays written about specifiaclly French impressionist painters. John House's essay is on the importance of light to these painters and how they portrayed it in their works.

Weller, Allen. “Impressionism.” __World Book__. Volume 10, I. 1989. Specific artcile about impressionist painting. Follow up to the encyclopedia article on painting, this article went more in depth about the development and style and the importance of French impressionists.

Boime, Albert. “Cubism.” __World Book__. Volume 4, Ci- Cz. Encyclopedia article that goes more in depth about cubism and the two phases it went through, analytical and sythetic.

Wadley, Nicholas. __Cubism: Movements of Modern Art__. New York: Hamlyn Publishing, 1970. Book about the history and development of cubism. Has chapters that talke about the history of the movement and what it was a reaction against, the two different phases, as well as chapters on important cubist painters.

Herbert, James D. __Fauve Painting: The Making of Cultural Politics.__ New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992. Book about the history of fauve painting. Talks about how fauvism took up the legacy of impressionism and mixes it with new idea. Pays specific attention to the works of Matisse and Derain.

Wilson, Edwin; Goldfarb, Alvin. //Living Theater: A History//, 3rd ed. Nashville: McGraw-Hill Humanities Social, 1999. Book about the history of theater from its very early beginings to the post-modern era. Two sections of interest, chapter elven discussing theater from 1800 to 1875 and chapter twelve discussing theater from 1875 to 1915.

Woodfield, James. //English Theater in Transition: 1881-1914,// London: Croom Helm, 1984. Book discussing the transition of theater to the modern stage and uses specific examples of English theater in the 19th and early 20th century.

Brockett, Oscar G. //Modern Theater: Realism and Naturalism to the Present//, Boston: Allyn and Bacon, INC., 1982. Book discussing Realism and Naturalism in the theater from the early 19th century to the present.

Cody, Gabrielle H., and Evert Sprinchorn, eds. //The Columbia Encyclopedia of Modern Drama//. New York: Columbia University Press, 2007 Articles in this encyclopedia include articles about realistic theater, naturalistic theater, and people such as Ibsen and Stanislavski.

Matthews, Brander. “The Drama in the Nineteenth Century.” The Drama in the Nineteenth Century. @http://www.imagi-nation.com/moonstruck/clsc90w1.html (accessed November 18, 2009). Website that discusses nineteenth century drama, relevant sections VI that discusses more importantly what is discussed on the page.

Chambers, Mortimer. //The Western Experience Volume II: Since the Sixteenth Century//. McGraw-Hill Book for our HIS 240 class that goes over history movements and chronicles European development since the sixteenth century until today. It is very vague because it has to cover a very broad period of time but is helpful in allowing me to understand basic concepts about certain time periods.

Leary, Lewis Gaston. //Articles on American Literature 1900-1950//. Durham, N.C., Duke University Press, 1954 This is a book that analyzes American Literature during the first half of the 20th century. This book goes in-depth in its analysis of certain pieces of American Literature and was very helpful because it was a much more specific source that I could consult to better understand the time period.

Gillie, Christopher. //Movements in English Literature//. London ; New York : Cambridge University Press, 1975 This is a book that chronicles movements in english literature during the time period of 1900-1940 and had many similarities to Articles on //American Literature// but was a little bit more broad but did have a good index that enabled me to easily find certain works.